Situated at an oasis in the Syrian desert, Palmyra or Tadmar as it was originally known, was a flourishing trade centre until the third century AD. A Semitic, Hellenistic and Roman city, its decline began when its' self styled Queen rebelled against Rome.
Tadmor: A Semitic and Seleucid City
The site of Palmyra was occupied from prehistory. Originally a Semitic city, it was known as Tadmor. From the beginning of its history, Tadmor made its fortune from trade. It was perfectly situated to do so, occupying a central position on the caravan route that ran between the Mediterranean in the west and the River Euphrates in the east, placing it between the classical world and the Parthian empire.
This position made Tadmor a desirable city to control. It eventually became part of the Seleucid Empire, whose Hellenistic influence contributed to the cities architectural appearance. With the fall of the Seleucid dynasty, the city once again independent, operating as a middle man between the Parthians and the rising Roman Empire. It did not remain self autonomous for long.
Roman Palmyra
In the first century AD, the Romans conquered Tadmor and it became known as Palmyra, the ‘place of palms’ after its oasis location.
Despite their conquered status, the Palmyrans still maintained a relative degree of freedom that slowly increased with time. In 129AD, the Emperor Hadrian visited Palmyra and declared it a free city, able to set and control its own taxes. In 212 AD, the Emperor Caracalla made it a Roman colony, extending full Roman rights to its citizens and exempting them from paying taxes to the emperor.
Palmyra flourished, especially because of the decline of the Nabatean city of Petra which had previously dominated eastern trade. The city embarked on a building programme, renovating its temples and equipping itself with Roman features such as its colonnaded street.
Zenobia’s Rebellion
This prosperity came to an abrupt end when the Palmyrans rebelled against Rome in the third century AD.
Roman dominance in Syria was under threat from the Persian empire and the Palmyrans took advantage of the situation exert greater independence from their roman masters. Although they did not break with Rome, they took on the status of an ally rather than a subject. A local tribal leader Odainat made himself king and held back the Persian tide, defeating them several times. The grateful Romans awarded him with the title ‘conqueror of the east’.
Odainat was assassinated in 267AD and his widow Zenobia assumed the regency for their infant son. Zenobia however wanted full independence for herself and Palmyra. She broke dramatically from Rome, attacking the Roman garrison at Bosra before capturing Egypt and entering Asia Minor.
The Romans led by the Emperor Aurelian retaliated and successfully quashed Zenobia’s rebellion and reclaimed Palmyra in 272 AD. Whilst their Queen was taken to Rome in chains, the city itself was initially spared.
The Decline of Palmyra
The Palmyrans were not content with Rome’s leniency. In 273AD, they rebelled again, sacking the Roman garrison established at the city. The Romans counterattacked and overcame the rebels. This time Palmyra was set on fire and much of it destroyed. Its heyday was over.
The city was not abandoned by Rome. The Emperor Diocletian refortified it as a fortress on the eastern borders of the empire and its walls were repaired by Emperor Justinian in the sixth century AD. But Palmyra was no longer a prosperous trade centre. It was now just a military outpost on the borders of the empire.
In 634AD, Palmyra fell to the Muslim army of Kahled ibn Al Walid. The Islamic conquerors turned its Temple of Bel into a fortress and built a castle on the mountain overlooking the town. A small settlement remained. But the former city of Palmyra was finally abandoned, suffering damaged by earthquakes before being buried under the desert sands. It was not rediscovered until 1638.
Sources
Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome (2003) Charles Gates. Routledge: London and New York
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